Medical Science

The history of medicine is very interesting. Centuries before the advent of Islam, Arabs had) their own system of medicine in the form of herbs and shrubs ( ‘Aqaqir Hashä’ish wal-based Chaldean and medicine on their own experiences. Her doctor was Luqman and Khuzaim second. By and by Greek medicine has attracted his attention. Harith Ibn Kaldah Greek medicine was first introduced to the Arabs. Then began a few books are written on the subject. Tiazauq together some papers on pharmacology and Khalid Ibn Yazid Ibn Mu’awiyah got some Egyptian and Greek books translated into Arabic. It is in this state during the reign of Banu Umayyah. “But the science of medicine flourished during the reign of the Abbasi. 1 ”
First, Muslims will arrange for the translation of Greek medicine, Indian, Persian and Chaldean works in Arabic, and thus acquired the knowledge of medical systems of these countries. But they were not accepted as such, who had offered to these systems. They have done research in various fields of medical science, and accepts what has been proven. She also made many important discoveries in the theory and practice of medicine. Then sorted on their discoveries and the combination of hardware of these systems, they have developed a completely new system of medicine. When Europeans have learned the system on Muslims in general by the Arabic medical literature, calling it correctly, Arab medicine, recognizing the one hand, their debt to the Muslims, and on the other hand, put the seal of proof to extensive and original contributions of Muslim scientists in medicine. As medical knowledge has been largely adopted by the Greeks, has been appointed the new system by the Muslims of the subcontinent of South Asia Tibb-e-Yûnanî (Greek medicine). This law gives evidence of the Muslim spirit of liberalism.
If the Muslim world has produced the theory and practice in significant medical history, was the state of medicine in Europe is very bad. The Muslims who came in contact with doctors during the Crusades Frank expressed great contempt for their ignorance and barbaric practices. Thabit, a doctor Christian Syrian prince Osama observed two cases (c. 1140) ends in death because of the barbaric response to Frank. The study of Islamic medicine has for centuries been achieved in all Western countries, including France and in the writings of Arab physicians formed the nucleus of the medical literature in Europe. For 17 centuries, these writings were included in the curricula of European universities. In France, Arabic medicine was examined from 1410 to 1789. In Vienna in 1520, and in Frankfurt on the Order in 1588 to study medicine was still largely based on Ibn Sina “Kanun” and on the ninth book of Al-Razi Al-Mansouri. The introduction of this science in Europe is an interesting chapter in history.
According to Dr. Robert Briffault, a prominent Western scholars, the system of allopathic medicine is the result of Arab medicine. He observes:
“The pharmacy is created by the Arabs in practice, but they are preparing the last synthetic organotherapic in use at present, our common drugs such as Nux, senna, rhubarb, aconite, gentian, myrrh, calomel and structure of our earnings belong to the Arab Medicine ”
He also revealed that medical schools has remained at Montpellier, Padua and Pisa to the model that the Jews have been trained in Cordoba was founded by physicians in Arab schools, and the Qanun of Ibn Sina and surgery of Abul-Qasim al-Zahrawi the text books of medical science throughout Europe until the seventeenth century 2
The Arabs have a good knowledge of anatomy, where he found the names of internal and external organs of the human body and animals seen in the literature of pre-Islamic Arabia. When she met with the Greek anatomical descriptions, they made inquiries at her, pointed out numerous errors in the work of their predecessors, and made many new discoveries in this field. To determine if the ideas of the Greeks anatomical prevailing Yuhanna ibn Masawaih made the dissection of the monkey, he gave the order were the ‘Caliph Mutasim Billah Abbasi. Following this review, it was his work on anatomy. The work of some Muslim physicians and surgeons, as Tashrih Mansuri al-Mansur ibn Muhammad contain images of human organs, which are not in the Greek works. These examples also illuminate the practical knowledge of Muslims anatomy.3
Unlike Galen, who believed that there was the skull of man consists of seven bones, Muslim scholars have determined that it was eight years old. They believed that the bones of the ear, which would facilitate the hearing Capacity.4 work of Muslim physicians in the field of physiology, is also very valuable. For example, Ibn al-Nafis said Karshi Damascus, the theory of blood for three centuries before William Harvey is credited for this discovery. Al-Qarshi also suggested that food is fuel to maintain body heat. Abul-Faraj decided it would be transmitted channels in the nerves, the sensations and movements.
The contributions of Muslims in the field of bacteriology are quite revolutionary. According to Browne, the Muslims were fully aware of the germ theory. Ibn Sina was the first state that bodily secretion is the violence of foreign land before they infect infection. Ibn Khätimah the 14th Century, said that the man of small body, which is surrounded enter the human body and cause disease. In the same century, when the plague ravages the world, and the main reasons for them, based on superstition, said whether Jews or volcanic eruptions or the birth of a calf with two heads, two doctors Muslim, Ibn Khatib (1313 – 1374) and Ibn Khätimah (1323-1369), wrote to newspapers, which were based on scientific principles observations.5
Some Muslims also have new ideas for treating diseases. In this context Abu’1 Hasan led the doctor Adud-Daulah the process of bleeding as a treatment for brain hemorrhage, which often result in blood pressure. Al-Razi has proposed to nutritious food for the treatment of generalized weakness. Muslim physicians were the first to use the feeding tube for the implementation of gastric lavage in the case of gas poisoning. They were fully aware of the principles of centuries before opotherapy Sequard Browne, attributed to such treatment. Abdus Said Ibn Bishr Ibn ‘proposed light meals and produce cold medicines to treat paralysis and facial paralysis. Ibn al-Walid has focused on the treatment of disease control through food. They found the treatment of epidemic jaundice, and suggested a reasonable quantity of opium in the treatment of mania. For a nosebleed they beat pouring cold water on head.6
Surveys of Muslim physicians on the causes, symptoms and effects of some diseases are very remarkable. Al-Razi, it was the first physician to differentiate between smallpox and measles. His predecessors Greek, Indian and others were not able to distinguish between these two diseases. Abul-Hasan al-Tabari was the first indication of TB as an infiltration and said that not only the lungs but also other organs. Bright’s disease, is the discovery by Dr. Richard Bright, 18 century is attributed, was discovered in the act of Najib al-Din al-Samarqand centuries before him.7
In the science of surgery, was as much support from Muslims. They led the corrosive substances surgery. They were the first, the cooling method is to stop the bleeding and begin the suture with silk son. ) Avenzoar (11.-century, has a full description of the operation of tracheotomy, which was not mentioned by the Greeks. Abul-Qasim al-Zahrawi invented several surgical instruments in his illustrated book Tasrif al. In same book, he describes the methods of operations for different diseases. Although the description of the process of the skull and parts of the Muslim surgeon, a reference to the preparation of suppositories and nasal polynus. They used the method tonsillectomy and perforation of the tympanic membrane. They were also the first to perform the operation of the abdominal cavity, and using the method of trocar and cannula for drainage special. They used drug substances in surgery . In performing major surgery, they kept their patients unconscious for a long time, sometimes for days.8
The optician Muslim original and valuable work in the treatment of eye diseases and eye surgery. All eye operations are conducted at that time were Muslim surgeon of the Middle Ages made. The method of cataract surgery was described by them. They knew that cataract was due to the inability of the lens of the eye. Ibn al-Haitham describes the structure of the eye. He has revolutionary ideas about the mechanism of vision, and describes the different types of lenses. Later, these descriptions is the basis for the invention of spectacles as a cure for these eye diseases such as myopia and hyperopia are served. Muslims have written valuable books on the treatment of eye diseases.
The art of midwifery has been highly developed by the Muslims. In this context, Abul-Qasim al-Zahrawi is was the first to describe the position Walcher. He invented the method Cranioclasty for delivery of dead fetuses, and he has refused. A book entitled Al-Athar al-Bãqiyyah at the University of Edinburgh, contains an illustration showing an Arab doctor to perform the operation Caeserian. A number of new drugs and therapeutics have been discovered by the Muslims, and many herbs, especially from India have been in practice. The pharmacology of rhubarb, senna and camphor was discovered, and henbane was used by them for medicinal purposes.
Muslims Pharmacopoeia introduced in medical science. Ibn Sahl was the first to write a book on the book of medicine. Revenues in the writings of al Da’ud contained Antaki (16.-century) and others have been adopted by European chemists. Arabian Pharmacology survived in Europe until the early 19th Century. Some of the original Arabic or Persian names of certain drugs and chemicals, such as syrup) from the Arabic word Sharab, hard “for a particular mixture of honey and fruit juices and julläb Julep the Persian word” ( a drink special aroma, which in European languages.
Muslims have written books on the branches of medical science on which their predecessors were not. These books Yuhanna ibn Maswaih book about leprosy, Al-Razi books on smallpox and measles, are Abu Musa Ibn Isa book on stilts and Qusta Ibn Luqa book on sudden death is very valuable.
From the date of the Banu Umayyah normally developed health clinics Muslims. During the reign of the Abbasi Caliph Harun al-Rashid was a hospital in Baghdad, was the first built in the history of this city. Many new hospitals were established shortly thereafter. Some of them have their own garden, where medicinal plants are cultivated. Major hospitals have medical schools attached to them. In most hospitals, for example, there were many trips to hospitals Muslims world.9
Muslim hospitals were used as a model for hospitals in various parts of Europe, particularly Italy and France. The construction of hospitals throughout Europe in the 14th century was due in part to the influence of the Crusades. The first hospital in Paris, Twenty Fifteen was created by Louis IX after his return from the Crusades of 1254-60. The crusaders were inspired by the beautiful hospital (Bimare-TAN), the Seljuk ruler Nur al-Din, Damascus, and those of the Mamluk Sultan al-Mansur Qala’un in Cairo.
Practical training will be used to teach medical students in hospitals Muslims. They say there is no provision for such education in Alexandria, before the Islamic era. According to Al-Razi, who was a doctor who meet two conditions to choose from: Firstly, it should be well versed in the medical literature new and old, and secondly, he has worked in hospitals as a house have surgeon.10
The second ‘Abbasi Caliph Al-Mansur, named after Baghdad Jundishapur Christian physician of Persian origin, named Ibn Jarjis Bakhtyishu leaders remained at the hospital in the city to 765-6. His arrival in Baghdad, with two of his students was the beginning of an intense activity in the field of medicine. It seems to be the first member of the famous family of doctors Bakhtyishu. This family remained in the Court a number of “fixed Abbasi Caliph, and exerted a great influence on the progress of medicine in the Muslim eighth and ninth centuries. Jarjis are the first medical works and have been translated into Arabic. The translations were made by order of the Caliph. 11
In the ninth century AD, the largest medical activity has been shown by Arabic-speaking peoples. Much activity has been translating Greek medical works into Syriac and paid in Arabic. All translators were Christians. One of them, Ibn SAHD translated some works of Hippocrates into Arabic. Jibril Ibn Bakhtyishu († 828-29) promoted the translator and worked hard to obtain Greek medical texts. He also wrote medical works of their own. He made a great contribution to the advancement of science in Baghdad. It was the most prominent member of the family Bakhtyishu. A Christian physician Ibn Salmawaih Burian. († 839-40) Hunain Galen helped to translate medical works. Salmawaih shown that the use of aphrodisiacs, although often it is in the East, dangerous. He flourished under Al-Caliph. Later he became the personal physician of al-Mutasim .12
Another translator, Ibn Masawaih († 857) translated many Greek medical works into Syria. His own medical writings were in Arabic. His treatise on ophthalmology called Al’Ayn Daghal (eye disease) is the oldest existing works in Arabic on subject.13
Another important translator of Greek medical works into Arabic was Ayyub al-Ruhawi, a contemporary of the ‘Abbasi Caliph Al-Mutawakkil and al-Mu’tazz (d.869). The translation of 35 works of Galen, Greek physician, is attributed to him.14
What ate the doctors of the ninth century is concerned, was an important Abul-Hasan ‘Ali ibn Sahl ibn Rabban al-Tabari. There was also a physicist, and had knowledge of the Bible. He was born in Tabaristan, where he was educated. He belonged to a Jewish family, but he accepted Islam in the hands of the Caliph Al-Abbsi Mu’tasim, who made his courtier. Ali Ibn Rabban is the author of many books, but his main work is an encyclopedia called Al – Hikmah Firdaus. It deals primarily with medicine, but also philosophy, meteorology, zoology, embryology, psychology and astronomy. It is mainly in Greek and Hindu sources, and provides a summary of Hindu medicine at the end. His other medical works on hygiene and the use of food, beverages and herbs.15
The most famous doctor in the ninth century was Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Latin Rhazes). It was the greatest physician of the Middle Ages, and probably the largest Muslim doctor. There was also a philosopher and a chemist. He was born Ray (Persia), so the name of Al-Razi. The date of his birth is uncertain. He died in his 923rd in the early years, Al-Razi was very fond of music, and used to play the flute (oud). When he was in later years, he wanted to acquire the knowledge of medicine. His interest in medicine was sparked by a pharmacist or old distributor, where he met frequently at the hospital. Finally, Al-Razi was like a medical expert, that as chief physician at the hospital designated by Ray. Al-Razi regularly to the hospital, surrounded by his disciples. When a patient, he was first examined by his students. If the case was considered complicated, he was transferred to Al-Razi.
Al-Razi has also served as chief physician of the hospital in Baghdad, which was based on his own advice. When asked Al-Razi was an appropriate choice to build the hospital, he received a few pieces of meat in different places of the city exposed. The place where the meat was selected in the past, exacerbated by hospital site.
Al-Razi was the author of 113 major and 28 smaller works, and two poems. Some of them were published in the original, and translated into Latin and vernacular languages. Al-Razi unpublished works are present in the libraries of Asia and Europe. Most of his works have been lost, but those present, one can appreciate the depth of his knowledge and skills. His writings are from personal observations and valuable information. The most important of his monograph is a treatise on smallpox and measles. This work is a masterpiece of Islamic medical literature. It was translated into Latin and English, and enjoyed great popularity in Europe. It was published in the original, with a French translation in Leyden in 1896.
One of Al-Razi test stands on the stone in the kidneys and bladder. It was published in the original, with a French translation in Leyden in 1896.
The most important book of Al-Razi al-Hawi (continents). It is an immense encyclopedia of medicine, which contains many extracts from Greek and Hindu medical works. It was translated into Latin. The anatomical part has been translated into French and published with the original text in Arabic.
Another important medical work of the author is the Kitab al-Mansuri (America Almansor) of Mansur ibn Ishaq, the head of Khorasan, the Al-Razi sponsored appointed, while he lived in Persia. The book is based largely on Greek medicine. The French translation of part of the Arabic text was published. The ophthalmic part has been translated into German. The second part is concerned with the temperament and physiology. This topic has been of great importance in the Middle Ages.
Al-Razi a valuable contribution to gynecology, obstetrics and ophthalmic surgery. He also contributed significantly to the development of chemistry, both theoretically and practically. It was the first to apply the chemical to the manufacture of pharmaceuticals. It is the ancestor of the iatrochemists 16th European century.16
Al-Razi made some discoveries in the field of medical science invented, and some medications. He explained that the case is the acid in the stomach. It was the first to introduce the sucker wet treatment of stroke and apply cold water in typhoid fever. He invented the mercury ointment.17
Al-Razi “was a brilliant physician and responsible. He followed Hippocrates, and was free of the feelings of prejudice and obstinacy. During the reign of Caliph Al-written Mu’tadid (829-902), his squire, Yaqub ibn akhi Hizam a treatise on the art of riding, which is entitled “Kitab al-Furusiyyah. It includes some approaches to veterinary. It is the first Arabic book of its kind
Under the auspices of the son of Banu Musa Musa) and the Caliph Al-Mutawakkil a Christian doctor, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (translated the works of medical scientists and other Greeks. Banu Musa him busy for the acquisition and translation of Greek manuscripts . The caliph appointed a school he founded, and ordered him to translate the manuscripts under his supervision. He has worked primarily in medical translation. The translation by Hunayn and his disciples was a milestone in the historical development of science. Hunayn also wrote numerous medical and astronomical worko.18
In the tenth century, almost all creative work on medicine was done in the Islamic world, not only by Muslims. Some non-Muslims also make a valuable contribution to the development of this science. But all of them said in Arabic. Towards the middle of the century, tenth, the number of doctors surprisingly large. The drug research has been conducted throughout the Muslim world. Muslim Spain, the work of medicine was the same level as in the Eastern Caliphate. Sometimes it was even better than that.
The Fatimid caliph Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi (908-934), ordered by his physician Ishaq al-Isra’il, Jewish physician and philosopher, to call the medical literature in Arabic. He wrote a treatise on medical and philosophical elements and another with the definitions. His major works include fever, drugs easy, temperaments, dentology and urine. This book seems to be the most medieval treatises on the subject drawn. These writings have been translated into Latin, Hebrew and Spanish. They have exerted great influence on the progress of medicine in Europe.l9
A great Muslim physician of the tenth century was Abu Said Ibn Sinan Ibn Thabit Qurra. There was also a mathematician and astronomer. He worked in Baghdad, where he died 943rd He embraced Islam in middle age. It was by the caliph Al-Abbasi Muqtadir, which nominated and honored as the head doctor. At that time there were 860 people, the medical profession in Baghdad. They were banned by the Caliph of practice, unless they have been reviewed by Sinan and received a registration certificate to him. In addition Muq’tadir serve, Sinan has also served two successive Caliph Qadir Billah and Radi. Sinan attempt to raise the level of the medical profession, and held a brilliant management of hospitals in Baghdad. He is the author of numerous books on various subjects.20
Another great physician, this time, which was one of the three greatest physicians of the East was the Caliphate, ‘Abbas ibn Ali al-majus (America Haly Abbas). He was born in Ahwaz in the south-west Persia. It was a close collaborator of ‘al-Dawla Adud for which he wrote an encyclopedia entitled “Kitab al-Kamil al-Maliki or al Sanãah-Tibbiyyah. The people, she studied intensively until publication of the “Kanun” (Canon) of Ibn Sina, which has led to its popularity in itself. It is more convenient than the “Kanun” and more consistently than Hawi Razi. The Maliki in 20 speeches, the first deals – half of the theory and the rest of the exercise of Laryngology divided.
The speech of the second and third by Al-Ma1iki face anatomy. The French translation of this part of the book was published with the text in Arabic. 19. The speech is devoted to an operation. The introduction of this book consists of three chapters of the first issue is very remarkable. Part of the introduction of the criticism of ancient medical works is particularly interesting. The author explains the plans of his book in which he tries to treat a moderate description of the topic type, method and illustrated by an example description of pleurisy. It starts with the definition of the disease and its etiology. Then he mentioned the four permanent symptoms, fever, cough, pain and breathlessness, when it comes to prognosis and in particular information of supta established, and finally provide treatment. In his book, the author describes the importance of attending the clinic regularly. He writes: “And the things that are on the student population of this type of function for which we must constantly attend the hospitals and patients, constant attention to the conditions and circumstances of its occupants, accompanied by Teachers acute medicine and often ask questions about the condition of patients and symptoms apparent in them, you do not hear what he has read on their variations, and they show that good or bad. If it does, it reached a high level in this art. Therefore, it is he wants to be an excellent doctor to monitor these orders to his character that is not consistent with what we discussed there, and they failed. If he does, his treatment of patients will be successful, be the people have confidence in him and he will win his affection and respect and good reputation, but it lacks the advantage and benefit. And God knows best, highest. ”
The best parts of the book are those devoted to dietetics and materia medica. It contains the basic idea of the capillary system. It also contains some interesting clinical observations, and provides evidence for the theory that the removal of the uterus during birth, ie, the child was removed. It does not come from itself.21
Another doctor, this time, the pharmaceutical experiments was used Abu ‘Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn Said al-Ahmad al-Tamimi Muqaddasi. He was born in Jerusalem and in 970 he went to Egypt. He wrote about the medical field and other branches of medical science. His principal work is a guide (Murshid) on medical matters, the valuable information about plants, minerals and other supplies things.22
A Christian physician named Abu Yussef Ben Isaac Ben Ezra Hasdai flourished at Cordova at the court of Abd al-Rahman III and Al-Hakam II, he was a translator of Greek works into Arabic and proponent of science. He was a doctor, the Caliph. He discovered a panacea called “Al-Faruq. He translated with the help of a monk Nicolas manuscript of Dioscorides. This manuscript has been dealing with plants Abd al-Rahman III, presented by the Emperor Constantine VII.23
Another doctor, encouraged by these leaders was Arib ibn Said al-Katib, who died in 976th It was also a historian and wrote a chronicle of Muslim Spain and Africa. He also wrote a treatise on gynecology, health of pregnant women and infants, obstetics and calendars. 24
Another treatise on the health of pregnant women and infants, with the title Kitab al-Wal Tadbir Habalah Atfal was an Egyptian doctor, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Yahya al-Baladi written. It flourished under the Registrar Yaqub ibn Kils († 990) .25
A famous physician and historian of the tenth century was Abu Ja’far Ahmad ibn Ibrahim ibn Abi Khalid, commonly known as Ibn al-Jazzar. He has worked in Kairouan, Tunis and died in 1009 He is the author of numerous books on medicine, history and other subjects. Is his most important work Zad al-Musafir. It was translated into Latin, Hebrew and Greek, and was extremely popular. It contains an excellent analysis of smallpox and measles. He also wrote about simple and compound drugs, the cause of the plague in Egypt and the type of treatment it.26
In this century, eleventh, has also been real progress in medicine in the Muslim world. In the same century, the School of Salerno, the scientific school of Christian Europe has shown some activity in this area. But the literary works that were written there, most of those contemporary Arabic. Constantine the African, has made intensive efforts to translate Arabic works into Latin. These translations have also been useful in the development of medicine in Europe.
A physician and surgeon major of the 11th century, Abul-Abbas Qasim Ibn Khalaf al-Zahrawi. He was born in Al-Zahra suburb of Córdoba (Spain), the center of the Islamic empire of the West. He was trained at a prestigious university in Cordoba. He studied medicine and science with other scientists of his time, and increased his knowledge and experience working in large hospitals. Because of its ability to al-Hakam II made him his personal physician. He wrote a book entitled Al-Tasrif, which is an encyclopedic work in all fields of medicine and surgery. This book, which is unparalleled in the Middle Ages, as the only source of modern surgery.